In this article we will explore the connection between Stoic metaphysics and ethics. We will see how impactful metaphysics is for the development of ethics.
Stoic philosophy represents the complex system of thought. It has guided generations of thinkers and its influence can be tracked through millenia. Even today, Stoic wisdom is more relevant than ever, and it is even becoming popular in cognitive therapy.
The foundation of Stoic thought lies in metaphysics; however, this is often overlooked since the center of interest has shifted to ethics and practicality. To the ancient Stoics, it would seem impossible to engage in the study of ethics without a broader knowledge of metaphysics. Let’s turn to metaphysics for now.
What is Metaphysics and Why is it Important?
Metaphysics is, as philosophers believed, the queen of all sciences. It is the most sublime philosophical doctrine, which explores the first and absolute principles that govern the universe, philosophically speaking.
To give you a better idea of what metaphysics is, we can cite a few examples. Thales of Miletus believed that water is the fundamental element and principle on which the universe is built. In contrast, Heraclites depicted fire as the foundation of all things. Pythagoras thought numbers represent the core of the universe, and Plato thought that ideas (eidos) are the true form of reality. Although there were many opposing beliefs, each philosopher tried to explain how individual things are related to each other. They believed that all of existence stems from one source, which they called arche (ἀρχή). Arche has many meanings and translations, including “beginning”, “first principle”, “origin” or “source of action”.
Stoic Metaphysics
In order to better understand Stoic metaphysics, we must first delve into the very beginnings of the Stoic school of thought. Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium around 300 BC. Zeno was mostly influenced by the philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, as well as Cynic philosophy. We can see that Stoicism was influenced by many ways of thinking during its development. However, Heraclitus’ cosmological principles of logos (reason) and fire as the arche were perhaps the most impactful on Stoic philosophy.
Stoic metaphysics is also known as materialism (not in the sense that they like material possessions, but in regard to the material or tangible nature of things). They believed that all things exist, whether perceptible or abstract. This means that they perceive both a table and the concept of wisdom, for instance, as equally corporeal. However, it is crucial to understand there are two principles to their concept of materialism, in the form of active and passive matter.
Passive, inert matter is what makes up all the things you can perceive. Active matter, on the other hand, is God and all his parts acting as a rational principle. In other words, active matter is all the things we can’t see, because it is made of elements not visible to our eyes.
The active matter or force is what shapes the universe via laws of logic and the laws of nature. When this God principle extends itself to the maximum point, all matter and souls are returned to the center of creation. All things are then absorbed by world-fire, which is a general process of recycling. After death, our souls lose their personalities and become pure energy. We will never exist as ourselves again; however, our energy or soul will inhabit another body when the new age of creation begins.
The Stoic’s Concept of Fate
As a result of their recycling concept, Stoics also believed that history repeats itself. Some things never change, such as human essence and nature of other things. Because nothing can escape its essence or nature, all things are the subjects of fate. Fate is the universal, rational force that pulls the strings of beings and events. In the Stoic’s belief, everything is determined. For example, we are all fated to die and that is an unavoidable part of our mortal nature. We are also fated to change, and to gain and lose things.
Stoics noticed that all humans, no matter what era or part of the world they live in, are the same. We all feel joy, anxiety, and fear; we suffer and feel happiness. All those emotions cause us to repeat actions that were made a long time ago. But, if everything is fated to happen, do we have a free will to choose between good and bad? Stoics believe we don’t have a free will in that respect, but we are free in our own minds to decide how we will perceive what is happening to us. This conclusion naturally leads us to the gates of ethics. Let’s enter.
Ethics and Its Dependence on Metaphysics
In a summarised form, we have seen how Stoics perceived the world and what they understood by it. Now, we will address their idea of ethics and how it is connected with metaphysics. Ethics is a very important philosophical doctrine in Stoic philosophy. Early Stoics thought of it as an unavoidable topic, and this was emphasized by Roman Stoic philosophers to the highest degree.
This practical, philosophical study of ethics has a noble goal to improve our quality of living and to become better versions of ourselves in every respect. Stoicism’s guidance can lead us to virtue, which is the same as true happiness.
Stoic ethics is a virtue ethics, which means it is focused on improving our character. We learned from metaphysics that the world is composed solely of matter and it is led by fate. There are no benevolent gods, nor afterlife. We are on our own here. However, this doesn’t mean we can do whatever we like because nobody is watching. An indifferent world doesn’t exclude justice. For example, you can follow your dark desires, but you will suffer from the consequences. It is a purely rational course of events.
There are those events that we consider tragic, such as the death of a child or loved ones. But Stoics believe this is also a natural course of events. Everything happens because of some reason. The child died because it was sick; our loved one died in a car accident because they were driving too fast or under the influence of alcohol. Ex nihilo nihil fit – nothing can come from nothing.
We can’t control outside events and external objects. This is where the main Stoic ethical principle arises – the famous Dichotomy of Control. This principle explains that there are things we can control and there are things we can’t control. Learning this difference is the key to remaining calm in the face of worldly events. Remaining calm and reasonable is the key to happiness.
But what can we control? We can control our thoughts, responses, behavior and actions. Therefore, we are responsible for ourselves. Even if fate is striking us hard, we are the ones who can smile back at it. That is the meaning of freedom in Stoic philosophy. Through this understanding, we can achieve virtue and enjoy the best possible form of living. For Stoics, virtue consists of living in accordance with nature. Our nature is what determines us, and reason is a special characteristic that all people share. Therefore, living in accordance with nature is living in accordance with reason or mind.
A virtuous man is one who is familiar with the nature of the universe and his own nature. He can see that we are all connected with the universe, with our bodies and mind, and that we are the subjects of rational fate. Because he knows this, he is able to live his life in the best possible way – without suffering.
